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61. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 1957. See also Aspray, John von Neuma
62. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute. See also McCartney, ENIAC, 125, quoting Eckert: “We were clearly suckered by John von Neuma
63. Je
64. Charles Duhigg and Steve Lohr, “The Patent, Used as a Sword,” New York Times, Oct. 7, 2012.
65. McCartney, ENIAC, 103.
66. C. Dia
67. Je
68. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”
69. Je
70. Jean Je
71. Je
72. T. R Ke
73. McCartney, ENIAC, 107.
74. Je
75. Jean Je
76. McCartney, ENIAC, 132.
77. Steven He
78. Hopper oral history, Computer History Museum, Dec. 1980.
79. Beyer, Grace Hopper, 277.
80. Von Neuma
81. Eckert oral history, Charles Babbage Institute.
82. Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neuma
83. Crispin Rope, “ENIAC as a Stored-Program Computer: A New Look at the Old Records,” IEEE A
84. Fritz, “The Women of ENIAC.”
85. Maurice Wilkes, “How Babbage’s Dream Came True,” Nature, Oct. 1975.
86. Hodges, Alan Turing, 10622.
87. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 2024. See also Goldstine, The Computer from Pascal to von Neuma
88. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 6092.
89. Hodges, Alan Turing, 6972.
90. Alan Turing, “Lecture to the London Mathematical Society,” Feb. 20, 1947, available at http://www.turingarchive.org/; Hodges, Alan Turing, 9687.
91. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 5921.
92. Geoffrey Jefferson, “The Mind of Mechanical Man,” Lister Oration, June 9, 1949, Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/44.
93. Hodges, Alan Turing, 10983.
94. For an online version, see http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html.
95. John Searle, “Minds, Brains and Programs,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1980. See also “The Chinese Room Argument,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-room/.
96. Hodges, Alan Turing, 11305; Max Newman, “Alan Turing, An Appreciation,” the Manchester Guardian, June 11, 1954.
97. M. H. A. Newman, Alan M. Turing, Sir Geoffrey Jefferson, and R. B. Braithwaite, “Can Automatic Calculating Machines Be Said to Think?” 1952 BBC broadcast, reprinted in Stuart Shieber, editor, The Turing Test: Verbal Behavior as the Hallmark of Intelligence (MIT, 2004); Hodges, Alan Turing, 12120.
98. Hodges, Alan Turing, 12069.
99. Hodges, Alan Turing, 12404. For discussions of Turing’s suicide and character, see Robin Gandy, unpublished obituary of Alan Turing for the Times, and other items in the Turing Archives, http://www.turingarchive.org/. His mother, Sara, liked to believe that Turing’s suicide was actually an accident caused when he was using cyanide to gold-plate a spoon. She sent to his archive a spoon she found in his lab with her note, “This is the spoon which I found in Alan Turing’s laboratory. It is similar to the one which he gold-plated himself. It seems quite probable he was intending to gold-plate this one using cyanide of potassium of his own manufacture.” Exhibit AMT/A/12, Turing Archive, http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/A/12.
CHAPTER FOUR: THE TRANSISTOR
1. Jon Gertner, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American I
2. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 2255.
3. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 2547.
4. John Pierce, “Mervin Joe Kelly: 1894–1971,” National Academy of Sciences, Biographical Memoirs, 1975, http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/kelly-mervin.pdf; Gertner, The Idea Factory, 2267.
5. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 178.
6. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 231.
7. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 929; Lillian Hoddeson, “The Discovery of the Point-Contact Transistor,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 12, no. 1 (1981): 76.
8. John Pierce interview, Transistorized!, PBS, 1999.
9. Shurkin, Broken Genius, 935; Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor.”
10. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1022.
11. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1266.
12. Gertner, The Idea Factory, 1336.
13. Brattain oral history, AIP.
14. Pines, “John Bardeen.”
15. Bardeen, “Walter Houser Brattain.”
16. Brattain oral history, AIP.
17. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 126.
18. Shockley, “The Path to the Conception of the Junction Transistor”; Michael Riordan, “The Lost History of the Transistor,” IEEE Spectrum, May 2004.
19. Riordan and Hoddeson, Crystal Fire, 121.
20. Brattain oral history, AIP.