The Innovators: How a Group of Inventors, Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution

7. John Searle, “Watson Doesn’t Know It Won on Jeopardy,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 23, 2011.

8. John E. Kelly III and Steve Hamm, Smart Machines (Columbia, 2013), 4. Steve Hamm is a technology journalist now working as a writer and communications strategist at IBM. I have attributed the opinions in the book to Kelly, who is the director of IBM research.

9. Larry Hardesty, “Artificial-Intelligence Research Revives Its Old Ambitions,” MIT News, Sept. 9, 2013.

10. James Somers, “The Man Who Would Teach Computers to Think,” Atlantic, Nov. 2013.

11. Gary Marcus, “Why Can’t My Computer Understand Me,” New Yorker, Aug. 16, 2013.

12. Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (Harper, 1994), 191.

13. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (Prentice Hall, 1995), 566.

14. Author’s interview with Bill Gates.

15. Nicholas Wade, “In Tiny Worm, Unlocking Secrets of the Brain,” New York Times, June 20, 2011; “The Co

16. John Markoff, “Brainlike Computers, Learning from Experience,” New York Times, Dec. 28, 2013. Markoff, who has long done thoughtful reporting on this field, is writing a book that explores the implications of machines that can replace human labor.

17. “Neuromorphic Computing Platform,” the Human Brain Project, https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/neuromorphic-computing-platform1; Be

18. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.

19. Vernor Vinge, “The Coming Technological Singularity,” Whole Earth Review, Winter 1993. See also Ray Kurzweil, “Accelerating Intelligence,” http://www.kurzweilai.net/.

20. J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Mar. 1960.

21. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.

22. Kasparov, “The Chess Master and the Computer.”

23. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 2.

24. “Why Cognitive Systems?” IBM Research website, http://www.research.ibm.com/cognitive-computing/why-cognitive-systems.shtml.

25. Author’s interview with David McQueeney.

26. Author’s interview with Gi

27. Author’s interview with Gi

28. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 3.

29. “Accelerating the Co-Evolution,” Doug Engelbart Institute, http://www.dougengelbart.org/about/co-evolution.html; Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (Stanford, 2000).

30. Nick Bilton, Hatching Twitter (Portfolio, 2013), 203.

31. Usually misattributed to Thomas Edison, although there is no evidence he ever said it. Often used by Steve Case.

32. Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002).

33. Steven Johnson, “The Internet? We Built That,” New York Times, Sept. 21, 2012.

34. Author’s interview with Larry Page. The quote form Steve Jobs comes from an interview I did with him for my previous book.

35. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.

PHOTO CREDITS

Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Lord Byron: © The Print Collector/Corbis

Babbage: Popperfoto/Getty Images

Difference Engine: Allan J. Cronin

Analytical Engine: Science Photo Library/Getty Images

Jacquard loom: David Mo

Jacquard portrait: © Corbis

Bush: © Bettma

Turing: Wikimedia Commons/Original at the Archives Centre, King’s College, Cambridge

Sha